Advanced characterization techniques for thin film solar cells /

Λεπτομέρειες βιβλιογραφικής εγγραφής
Άλλοι συγγραφείς:	Rau, U. (Uwe) (Επιμελητής έκδοσης), Abou-Ras, Daniel (Επιμελητής έκδοσης), Kirchartz, Thomas (Επιμελητής έκδοσης)
Μορφή:	Ηλ. βιβλίο
Γλώσσα:	English
Έκδοση:	Weinheim, Germany : Wiley-VCH, [2011]
Θέματα:	Photovoltaic cells > Materials > Research. TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING > Mechanical. Electronic books.
Διαθέσιμο Online:	Full Text via HEAL-Link

Πίνακας περιεχομένων:

Machine generated contents note: pt. one Introduction
1. Introduction to Thin-Film Photovoltaics / Uwe Rau
1.1. Introduction
1.2. The Photovoltaic Principle
1.2.1. The Shockley-Queisser Theory
1.2.2. From the Ideal Solar Cell to Real Solar Cells
1.2.3. Light Absorption and Light Trapping
1.2.4. Charge Extraction
1.2.5. Nonradiative Recombination
1.3. Functional Layers in Thin-Film Solar Cells
1.4. Comparison of Various Thin-Film Solar-Cell Types
1.4.1. Cu(In, Ga)Se2
1.4.1.1. Basic Properties and Technology
1.4.1.2. Layer-Stacking Sequence and Band Diagram of the Heterostructure
1.4.2. CdTe
1.4.2.1. Basic Properties and Technology
1.4.2.2. Layer-Stacking Sequence and Band Diagram of the Heterostructure
1.4.3. Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells
1.4.3.1. Hydrogenated Amorphous Si (a-Si: H)
1.4.3.2. Metastability in a-Si: H: The Staebler-Wronski Effect
1.4.3.3. Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon (& mu;c-Si: H)
1.4.3.4. Micromorph Tandem Solar Cells.
1.5. Conclusions
References
pt. Two Device Characterization
2. Fundamental Electrical Characterization of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Uwe Rau
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Current/Voltage Curves
2.2.1. Shape of Current/Voltage Curves and their Description with Equivalent Circuit Models
2.2.2. Measurement of Current/Voltage Curves
2.2.3. Determination of Ideality Factors and Series Resistances
2.2.4. Temperature-Dependent Current/Voltage Measurements
2.3. Quantum Efficiency Measurements
2.3.1. Definition
2.3.2. Measurement Principle and Calibration
2.3.3. Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Tandem Solar Cells
2.3.4. Differential Spectral Response (DSR) Measurements
2.3.5. Interpretation of Quantum Efficiency Measurements in Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells
References
3. Electroluminescence Analysis of Solar Cells and Solar Modules / Uwe Rau
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Basics
3.3. Spectrally Resolved Electroluminescence
3.4. Spatially Resolved Electroluminescence of c-Si Solar Cells
3.5. Electroluminescence Imaging of Cu(In, Ga)Se2 Thin-Film Modules.
3.6. Modeling of Spatially Resolved Electroluminescence
References
4. Capacitance Spectroscopy of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Pawel Zabierowski
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Admittance Basics
4.3. Sample Requirements
4.4. Instrumentation
4.5. Capacitance-Voltage Profiling and the Depletion Approximation
4.6. Admittance Response of Deep States
4.7. The Influence of Deep States on CV Profiles
4.8. DLTS
4.8.1. DLTS of Thin-Film PV Devices
4.9. Admittance Spectroscopy
4.10. Drive Level Capacitance Profiling
4.11. Photocapacitance
4.12. The Meyer-Neldel Rule
4.13. Spatial Inhomogeneities and Interface States
4.14. Metastability
References
pt. Three Materials Characterization
5. Characterizing the Light-Trapping Properties of Textured Surfaces with Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy / Karsten Bittkau
5.1. Introduction
5.2. How Does a Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscope Work?
5.3. Light Scattering in the Wave Picture
5.4. The Role of Evanescent Modes for Light Trapping
5.5. Analysis of Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy Images by Fast Fourier Transformation.
5.6. How to Extract Far-Field Scattering Properties by Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy?
5.7. Conclusion
References
6. Spectroscopic Ellipsometry / Robert W. Collins
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Theory
6.2.1. Polarized Light
6.2.2. Reflection from a Single Interface
6.3. Ellipsometry Instrumentation
6.3.1. Rotating Analyzer SE for Ex-Situ Applications
6.3.2. Rotating Compensator SE for Real-Time Applications
6.4. Data Analysis
6.4.1. Exact Numerical Inversion
6.4.2. Least-Squares Regression
6.4.3. Virtual Interface Analysis
6.5. RTSE of Thin Film Photovoltaics
6.5.1. Thin Si: H
6.5.2. CdTe
6.5.3. CuInSe2
6.6. Summary and Future
6.7. Definition of Variables
References
7. Photoluminescence Analysis of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Levent Gutay
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Experimental Issues
7.2.1. Design of the Optical System
7.2.2. Calibration
7.2.3. Cryostat
7.3. Basic Transitions
7.3.1. Excitons
7.3.2. Free-Bound Transitions
7.3.3. Donor-Acceptor Pair Recombination
7.3.4. Potential Fluctuations.
7.3.5. Band-Band Transitions
7.4. Case Studies
7.4.1. Low-Temperature Photoluminescence Analysis
7.4.2. Room-Temperature Measurements: Estimation of Voc from PL Yield
7.4.3. Spatially Resolved Photoluminescence: Absorber Inhomogeneities
References
8. Steady-State Photocarrier Crating Method / Rudolf Bruggemann
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Basic Analysis of SSPG and Photocurrent Response
8.2.1. Optical Model
8.2.2. Semiconductor Equations
8.2.3. Diffusion Length: Ritter-Zeldov-Weiser Analysis
8.2.3.1. Evaluation Schemes
8.2.4. More Detailed Analyses
8.2.4.1. Influence of the Dark Conductivity
8.2.4.2. Influence of Traps
8.2.4.3. Minority-Carrier and Majority-Carrier Mobility-Lifetime Products
8.3. Experimental Setup
8.4. Data Analysis
8.5. Results
8.5.1. Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon
8.5.1.1. Temperature and Generation Rate Dependence
8.5.1.2. Surface Recombination
8.5.1.3. Electric-Field Influence
8.5.1.4. Fermi-Level Position
8.5.1.5. Defects and Light-Induced Degradation.
8.5.1.6. Thin-Film Characterization and Deposition Methods
8.5.2. Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Alloys
8.5.3. Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon
8.5.4. Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Germanium
8.5.5. Other Thin-Film Semiconductors
8.6. Density-of-States Determination
8.7. Summary
References
9. Time-of-Flight Analysis / Torsten Bronger
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Fundamentals of TOF Measurements
9.2.1. Anomalous Dispersion
9.2.2. Basic Electronic Properties of Thin-Film Semiconductors
9.3. Experimental Details
9.3.1. Accompanying Measurements
9.3.1.1. Capacitance
9.3.1.2. Collection
9.3.1.3. Built-in Field
9.3.2. Current Decay
9.3.3. Charge Transient
9.3.4. Possible Problems
9.3.4.1. Dielectric Relaxation
9.3.5. Inhomogeneous Field
9.4. Analysis of TOF Results
9.4.1. Multiple Trapping
9.4.1.1. Overview of the Processes
9.4.1.2. Energetic Distribution of Carriers
9.4.1.3. Time Dependence of Electrical Current
9.4.2. Spatial Charge Distribution
9.4.2.1. Temperature Dependence.
9.4.3. Density of States
9.4.3.1. Widths of Band Tails
9.4.3.2. Probing of Deep States
References
10. Electron-Spin Resonance (ESR) in Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon (a-Si: H) / Jan Behrends
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Basics of ESR
10.3. How to Measure ESR
10.3.1. ESR Setup and Measurement Procedure
10.3.2. Pulse ESR
10.3.3. Sample Preparation
10.4. The g Tensor and Hyperfine Interaction in Disordered Solids
10.4.1. Zeeman Energy and g Tensor
10.4.2. Hyperfine Interaction
10.4.3. Line-Broadening Mechanisms
10.5. Discussion of Selected Results
10.5.1. ESR on Undoped a-Si: H
10.5.2. LESR on Undoped a-Si: H
10.5.3. ESR on Doped a-Si: H
10.5.4. Light-Induced Degradation in a-Si: H
10.5.4.1. Excess Charge-Carrier Recombination and Weak Si-Si Bond Breaking
10.5.4.2. Si-H Bond Dissociation and Hydrogen Collision Model
10.5.4.3. Transformation of Existing Nonparamagnetic Charged Dangling-Bond Defects
10.6. Alternative ESR Detection
10.6.1. History of EDMR
10.6.2. EDMR on a-Si: H Solar Cells.
10.7. Concluding Remarks
References
11. Scanning Probe Microscopy on Inorganic Thin Films for Solar Cells / Iris Visoly-Fisher
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Experimental Background
11.2.1. Atomic Force Microscopy
11.2.1.1. Contact Mode
11.2.1.2. Noncontact Mode
11.2.2. Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy
11.2.3. Scanning Capacitance Microscopy
11.2.4. Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy
11.2.5. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
11.2.6. Issues of Sample Preparation
11.3. Selected Applications
11.3.1. Surface Homogeneity
11.3.2. Grain Boundaries
11.3.3. Cross-Sectional Studies
11.4. Summary
References
12. Electron Microscopy on Thin Films for Solar Cells / Sebastian S. Schmidt
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy
12.2.1. Imaging Techniques
12.2.2. Electron Backscatter Diffraction
12.2.3. Energy-Dispersive and Wavelength-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry
12.2.4. Electron-Beam-Induced Current Measurements
12.2.4.1. Electron-Beam Generation
12.2.4.2. Charge-Carrier Collection in a Solar Cell.
12.2.4.3. Experimental Setups
12.2.4.4. Critical Issues
12.2.5. Cathodoluminescence
12.2.5.1. Example: Spectrum Imaging of CdTe Thin Films
12.2.6. Scanning Probe and Scanning-Probe Microscopy Integrated Platform
12.2.7. Combination of Various Scanning Electron Microscopy Techniques
12.3. Transmission Electron Microscopy
12.3.1. Imaging Techniques
12.3.1.1. Bright-Field and Dark-Field Imaging in the Conventional Mode
12.3.1.2. High-Resolution Imaging in the Conventional Mode
12.3.1.3. Imaging in the Scanning Mode Using an Annular Dark-Field Detector
12.3.2. Electron Diffraction.
Note continued: 12.3.2.1. Selected-Area Electron Diffraction in the Conventional Mode
12.3.2.2. Convergent-Beam Electron Diffraction in the Scanning Mode
12.3.3. Electron Energy-Loss Spectrometry and Energy-Filtered Transmission Electron Microscopy
12.3.3.1. Scattering Theory
12.3.3.2. Experiment and Setup
12.3.3.3. The Energy-Loss Spectrum
12.3.3.4. Applications and Comparison with EDX Spectroscopy
12.3.4. Off-Axis and In-Line Electron Holography
12.4. Sample Preparation Techniques
12.4.1. Preparation for Scanning Electron Microscopy
12.4.2. Preparation for Transmission Electron Microscopy
References
13. X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction on Materials for Thin-Film Solar Cells / Roland Mainz
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Diffraction of X-Rays and Neutron by Matter
13.3. Neutron Powder Diffraction of Absorber Materials for Thin-Film Solar Cells
13.3.1. Example: Investigation of Intrinsic Point Defects in Nonstoichiometric CuInSe2 by Neutron Diffraction.
13.4. Grazing Incidence X-Ray Diffraction (GIXRD)
13.5. Energy Dispersive X-Ray Diffraction (EDXRD)
References
14. Raman Spectroscopy on Thin Films for Solar Cells / Alejandro Perez-Rodriguez
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Fundamentals of Raman Spectroscopy
14.3. Vibrational Modes in Crystalline Materials
14.4. Experimental Considerations
14.4.1. Laser Source
14.4.2. Light Collection and Focusing Optics
14.4.3. Spectroscopic Module
14.5. Characterization of Thin-Film Photovoltaic Materials
14.5.1. Identification of Crystalline Structures
14.5.2. Evaluation of Film Crystallinity
14.5.3. Chemical Analysis of Semiconducting Alloys
14.5.4. Nanocrystalline and Amorphous Materials
14.5.5. Evaluation of Stress
14.6. Conclusions
References
15. Soft X-Ray and Electron Spectroscopy: A Unique "Tool Chest" to Characterize the Chemical and Electronic Properties of Surfaces and Interfaces / Clemens Heske
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Characterization Techniques
15.3. Probing the Chemical Surface Structure: Impact of Wet Chemical Treatments on Thin-Film Solar Cell Absorbers.
15.4. Probing the Electronic Surface and Interface Structure: Band Alignment in Thin-Film Solar Cells
15.5. Summary
References
16. Elemental Distribution Profiling of Thin Films for Solar Cells / Raquel Caballero
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Glow Discharge-Optical Emission (GD-OES) and Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy (GD-MS)
16.2.1. Principles
16.2.2. Instrumentation
16.2.2.1. Plasma Sources
16.2.2.2. Plasma Conditions
16.2.2.3. Detection of Optical Emission
16.2.2.4. Mass Spectroscopy
16.2.3. Quantification
16.2.3.1. Glow Discharge-Optical Emission Spectroscopy
16.2.3.2. Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy
16.2.4. Applications
16.2.4.1. Glow Discharge-Optical Emission Spectroscopy
16.2.4.2. Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy
16.3. Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)
16.3.1. Principle of the Method
16.3.2. Data Analysis
16.3.3. Quantification
16.3.4. Applications for Solar Cells
16.4. Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)
16.4.1. Introduction
16.4.2. The Auger Process
16.4.3. Auger Electron Signals.
16.4.4. Instrumentation
16.4.5. Auger Electron Signal Intensities and Quantification
16.4.6. Quantification
16.4.7. Application
16.5. X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
16.5.1. Theoretical Principles
16.5.2. Instrumentation
16.5.3. Application to Thin Film Solar Cells
16.6. Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Analysis on Fractured Cross Sections
16.6.1. Basics on Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry in a Scanning Electron Microscope
16.6.2. Spatial Resolutions
16.6.3. Applications
16.6.3.1. Sample Preparation
References
17. Hydrogen Effusion Experiments / Florian Einsele
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Experimental Setup
17.3. Data Analysis
17.3.1. Identification of Rate-Limiting Process
17.3.2. Analysis of Diffusing Hydrogen Species from Hydrogen Effusion Measurements
17.3.3. Analysis of H2 Surface Desorption
17.3.4. Analysis of Diffusion-Limited Effusion
17.3.5. Analysis of Effusion Spectra in Terms of Hydrogen Density of States
17.3.6. Analysis of Film Microstructure by Effusion of Implanted Rare Gases.
17.4. Discussion of Selected Results
17.4.1. Amorphous Silicon and Germanium Films
17.4.1.1. Material Density versus Annealing and Hydrogen Content
17.4.1.2. Effect of Doping on H Effusion
17.4.2. Amorphous Silicon Alloys: Si-C
17.4.3. Microcrystalline Silicon
17.4.4. Zinc Oxide Films
17.5. Comparison with Other Experiments
17.6. Concluding Remarks
References
pt. Four Materials and Device Modeling
18. Ab-Initio Modeling of Defects in Semiconductors / Johan Pohl
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Density Functional Theory and Methods
18.2.1. Basis Sets
18.2.2. Functionals for Exchange and Correlation
18.2.2.1. Local Approximations
18.2.2.2. Functionals Beyond LDA/GGA
18.3. Methods Beyond DFT
18.4. From Total Energies to Materials' Properties
18.5. Ab-initio Characterization of Point Defects
18.5.1. Thermodynamics of Point Defects
18.5.2. Formation Energies from Ab-Initio Calculations
18.5.3. Case study Point Defects in ZnO
18.6. Conclusions
References
19. One-Dimensional Electro-Optical Simulations of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Thomas Kirchartz.
19.1. Introduction
19.2. Fundamentals
19.3. Modeling Hydrogenated Amorphous and Microcrystalline Silicon
19.3.1. Density of States and Transport Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon
19.3.2. Density of States and Transport Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon
19.3.3. Modeling Recombination in a-Si: H and & mu;c-Si: H
19.3.3.1. Recombination Statistics for Single-Electron States: Shockley-Read-Hall Recombination
19.3.3.2. Recombination Statistics for Amphoteric States
19.3.4. Modeling Cu(In, Ga)Se2 Solar Cells
19.3.4.1. Graded Band-Gap Devices
19.3.4.2. Issues when Modeling Graded Band-Gap Devices
19.3.4.3. Example
19.3.5. Modeling of CdTe Solar Cells
19.3.5.1. Baseline
19.3.5.2. The & Phi;b
NAc (Barrier-Doping) Trade-Off
19.3.5.3. C-V Analysis as an Interpretation Aid of I-V Curves
19.4. Optical Modeling of Thin Solar Cells
19.4.1. Coherent Modeling of Flat Interfaces
19.4.2. Modeling of Rough Interfaces
19.5. Tools
19.5.1. AFORS-HET
19.5.2. AMPS-1D
19.5.3. ASA
19.5.4. PC1D
19.5.5. SCAPS.
19.5.6. SC-SIMUL
References
20. Two- and Three-Dimensional Electronic Modeling of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Wyatt K. Metzger
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Applications
20.3. Methods
20.3.1. Equivalent-Circuit Modeling
20.3.2. Solving Semiconductor Equations
20.4.2.1. Creating a Semiconductor Model
20.4. Examples
20.4.1. Equivalent-Circuit Modeling Examples
20.4.2. Semiconductor Modeling Examples
20.5. Summary
References.

Advanced characterization techniques for thin film solar cells /

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